Ancient India
c. 14th Century BCE
Battle of the Ten Kings (Dasarajna Yuddha)
This is one of the earliest recorded battles in Indian history, detailed in the Rigveda (Mandala 7). It was a pivotal conflict that established the political supremacy of the Bharata tribe in the region of Punjab.
- Combatants: The battle was fought between Sudas, a Bharata king of the Tritsu dynasty, and a confederacy of ten other tribes (Puru, Yadu, Turvasha, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas, Shiva, and Vishanin).
- Cause of Conflict: The primary cause was the control over the Ravi River and its resources. King Sudas had dismissed his chief priest Vishvamitra and appointed Vasishtha, leading Vishvamitra to form the confederacy of ten tribes against him.
- Outcome and Significance: Despite being outnumbered, King Sudas achieved a decisive victory. This battle led to the dominance of the Bharata tribe, which later merged with the Puru tribe to form the Kuru clan, a central entity in the epic Mahabharata. This event marks the beginning of the formation of larger political states in ancient India.
Ancient India
326 BCE
Battle of the Hydaspes
A legendary confrontation fought between the invading army of Alexander the Great and the forces of King Porus (Puru) of the Paurava kingdom on the banks of the Hydaspes River (Jhelum) in modern-day Pakistan.
- Background: After conquering the Persian Empire, Alexander marched into India. While some local chieftains submitted, King Porus refused to surrender, leading to this epic battle.
- Key Events: The battle was fierce, with Porus's army featuring a formidable contingent of war elephants that initially terrified the Macedonian forces. However, Alexander's superior military strategy, including a surprise river crossing during a monsoon storm, ultimately won the day.
- Outcome and Legacy: Alexander was victorious, but he was so impressed by the bravery and stature of Porus that he not only reinstated him as the ruler of his kingdom but also granted him additional territories. This battle marked the easternmost extent of Alexander's campaign.
Ancient India
261 BCE
Kalinga War
This was a pivotal and brutal war fought by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka against the state of Kalinga (modern-day Odisha). The aftermath of this war fundamentally changed the course of Ashoka's reign and Indian history.
- Causes: Kalinga was a prosperous and powerful kingdom that had not been subdued by the Mauryas. Its strategic location for trade and its military might posed a threat to Mauryan supremacy, prompting Ashoka's invasion.
- Consequences: The war resulted in a Mauryan victory, but at a catastrophic cost. Ashoka's own Rock Edict XIII vividly describes the horror, stating that 100,000 people were killed, 150,000 were deported, and many more perished from famine and disease.
- Ashoka's Transformation: Filled with immense remorse, Ashoka renounced warfare (Bherighosha) and adopted a policy of conquest through righteousness (Dhammaghosha). He converted to Buddhism and dedicated the rest of his life to spreading its message of peace and non-violence.
Medieval India
1191 & 1192 CE
The Battles of Tarain
A series of two decisive battles fought near Tarain (modern Taraori in Haryana) that determined the fate of North India for centuries to come.
- First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE): Fought between the Ghurid army of Muhammad Ghori and the Rajput confederacy led by Prithviraj Chauhan. The Rajputs scored a decisive victory, routing the Ghurid army. Muhammad Ghori himself was wounded and forced to retreat.
- Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE): Ghori returned a year later with a much larger and better-prepared army. He used clever tactics, including a feigned retreat, to break the Rajput charge. Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated and captured, marking a catastrophic blow to Rajput power.
- Significance: The second battle was a landmark event. It opened up the Gangetic plains to Turkic invaders and directly led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 CE by Ghori's general, Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
Medieval & Early Modern India
1526, 1556, 1761 CE
The Three Battles of Panipat
Three pivotal battles fought at Panipat, a strategic location north of Delhi, which shaped the political history of North India.
- First Battle of Panipat (1526): Babur, a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan, defeated the much larger army of Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultan of Delhi. Babur's victory was due to his superior tactics, including the use of gunpowder firearms and field artillery (the Tulughma system), which were new to India. This battle marked the foundation of the Mughal Empire.
- Second Battle of Panipat (1556): The Mughal emperor Akbar's forces, led by his regent Bairam Khan, defeated the Hindu king Hemu. Hemu had conquered Delhi and Agra and declared himself Vikramaditya. His defeat was a matter of chance (an arrow struck his eye), but it was crucial for consolidating the fledgling Mughal Empire for Akbar.
- Third Battle of Panipat (1761): Fought between the expanding Maratha Empire and the invading Afghan army of Ahmad Shah Durrani. It was one of the largest and bloodiest battles of the 18th century. The decisive defeat of the Marathas was a massive setback, halting their northward expansion and creating a power vacuum that was eventually filled by the British.
Medieval India
1565 CE
Battle of Talikota
A watershed battle fought between the powerful Hindu kingdom of the Vijayanagara Empire and an alliance of the Deccan Sultanates. This conflict is considered the death knell of the last great Hindu empire of South India.
- Combatants: The Vijayanagara army was led by its regent, Aliya Rama Raya. The alliance of Deccan Sultanates consisted of Bijapur, Bidar, Ahmadnagar, and Golconda.
- Outcome: Despite its initial successes, the Vijayanagara army was betrayed by two of its Muslim commanders, leading to chaos and a crushing defeat. Rama Raya was captured and executed.
- Aftermath: The victorious Sultanate armies plundered and destroyed the magnificent capital city of Vijayanagara (Hampi) over several months, leaving it in ruins. The battle critically weakened the empire, which eventually disintegrated, paving the way for smaller regional powers to rise.
Colonial Period
1757 CE
Battle of Plassey
A decisive victory for the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah, and his French allies. This battle is widely considered the starting point of British rule in India.
- Background: Tensions grew between the Nawab and the British over the Company's misuse of trade privileges and the fortification of Calcutta.
- Conspiracy and Betrayal: The battle was more of a skirmish, won largely through conspiracy. Robert Clive of the East India Company hatched a plot with key figures in the Nawab's camp, including his commander-in-chief, Mir Jafar.
- Outcome: During the battle, large sections of the Nawab's army, led by the conspirators, refused to fight. Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated and later assassinated. Mir Jafar was installed as the puppet Nawab.
- Significance: The victory gave the British immense financial resources from Bengal, which they used to expand their military power and eventually conquer the rest of India. It marked the transformation of the East India Company from a trading entity to a ruling power.
Colonial Period
1775–1818 CE
The Anglo-Maratha Wars
A series of three major conflicts fought between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire, which was the last major Indian power left to challenge British supremacy.
- First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82): The war began due to internal succession struggles within the Maratha Empire, which the British tried to exploit. The war ended with the Treaty of Salbai, which was a stalemate, largely restoring the pre-war status quo. It highlighted the strength and unity of the Marathas under leaders like Mahadji Shinde.
- Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05): Internal strife once again weakened the Marathas. The British, under Governor-General Lord Wellesley, scored decisive victories, leading to the Treaty of Deogaon and the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon. The Marathas ceded large territories, including Delhi and Agra, and their power was significantly curtailed.
- Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–18): This was the final and decisive conflict. The British decisively defeated the Marathas, dismantled the Maratha Confederacy, abolished the position of the Peshwa, and annexed most of their territories, cementing British control over almost all of India.
Colonial Period
1845–1849 CE
The Anglo-Sikh Wars
Two wars fought between the powerful Sikh Empire, built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, and the British East India Company, which led to the complete subjugation of the last independent kingdom in India.
- First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–46): After the death of Ranjit Singh, the Sikh Empire was destabilized by internal power struggles. The powerful and restive Sikh army (Khalsa) crossed the Sutlej River, provoking a war with the British. Despite the bravery of the Sikh soldiers, betrayal by some of their leaders led to their defeat. The war ended with the Treaty of Lahore, which ceded valuable territories to the British.
- Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848–49): A local revolt in Multan escalated into a full-scale war. The Sikhs were finally defeated at the Battle of Gujrat.
- Aftermath: Following the war, Lord Dalhousie annexed the entire Punjab region into the British Indian Empire in 1849, ending the sovereignty of the Sikh Empire.
Colonial Period
1857–1858 CE
Indian Rebellion of 1857
Also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or India's First War of Independence, this was a large-scale rebellion against the rule of the British East India Company, which spread across North and Central India.
- Causes: The rebellion had multiple causes: political (Doctrine of Lapse), economic (heavy taxation), social (racial discrimination), and religious (fears of forced conversion). The immediate trigger was the introduction of new rifle cartridges greased with beef and pork fat, which offended both Hindu and Muslim sepoys.
- Key Events: The rebellion began at Meerut and soon spread to Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, and Jhansi. Key leaders included Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi, Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope, and Kunwar Singh.
- Outcome and Impact: The rebellion was brutally suppressed by the British by 1858. However, it was a major turning point. The rule of the British East India Company was abolished, and India came under the direct rule of the British Crown through the Government of India Act 1858. The British army was reorganized, and policies were changed to prevent such an event from recurring.